Armauer Hansen var ikke den første i Bergen som eksperimenterte på mennesker i håp om å forstå lepra bedre. Hans forgjenger, mentor, sjef og svigerfar, overlege Danielsen (til venstre) hadde sammen med legen og stortingsrepresentanten Carl Wilhelm Boeck (til høyre) forsøkt å bevise at lepra ikke var smittsomt ved å injisere veske fra leprapasienter til friske mennesker. Men der Armauer Hansen gjorde dette mot en pasient som ikke var informert eller ga samtykke brukte Danielssen og Boeck seg selv som forsøkspersoner. Ingen av dem utviklet lepra fra dette. Foto: Riksarkivet og Oslo Museum
Albert Neisser
Albert Neisser – den tyske legen som besøkte Hansen rett før eksperimentet – var heller ikke fremmed for eksperimenter på mennesker uten informert samtykke. I 1898 gjennomførte han forsøk på uvitende pasienter hvor de mottok injeksjoner med blodserum fra syfilispasienter. Foto: Ukjent
Selv-eksperimentering
Det finnes mange eksempler i medisinsk historie på forskere som velger å eksperimentere på seg selv heller enn pasienter.
Den franske legen Jean-Louis-Marc Alibert injiserte seg selv med kreftceller i 1808. Litografi: VillainDen amerikanske legen Jesse Lazear eksponerte seg selv for gulsott i 1900 for å bedre kunne forske på dette, og døde av sykdommen. Foto: National Library of MedicineDen tyske kirurgen og nobelprisvinneren Werner Forssmann satte det første hjertekateteret på seg selv i 1929, en prosess som involverer å føre det inn i blodårene i armen og la trykket føre det frem til hjertet. Han overbeviste en oversykepleier om å assistere i den uautoriserte operasjonen mot at hun skulle være forsøkspersonen fremfor ham. Han førte henne bak lyset ved hjelp av lokalbedøvelse og gjennomførte istedenfor operasjonen på seg selv. Foto: UkjentAmerikaneren John Stapp var selv den hyppigste frivillige deltager i hans mange eksperimenter på deakselerering og kollisjoner for det amerikanske luftvåpenet. På 1940 og 50-tallet brakk han lemmer og ribbein, mistet tenner og fikk øyenskader i forskjellige tester som eksponerte ham for krefter opptil 46g. Foto: Hearst Newsreel
Samfunnet har fått tydeligere etiske retningslinjer om hvordan medisinske forsøke skal gjennomføres, men selv-eksperimentering foregår fortsatt i tilfeller hvor forskere føler det er viktig å få resultater raskt. I løpet av 2020 prøvde en rekke forskere ved forskjellige institusjoner ut eksperimentelle COVID-19 vaksiner og kurer på seg selv. Dette skjedde blant annet i Kina, USA, Tyskland og Russland.
Eksperimenter på mennesker uten informert samtykke
Hansen og Neisser er bare noen av svært mange leger og vitenskapsmenn som gjennomførte eksperimenter på mennesker uten samtykke i vitenskapens navn.
Den amerikanske legen James Marion Sims kalles ofte den moderne gynekologiens far. På 1840- og 50-tallet utviklet han mange av sine kirurgiske teknikker ved hjelp av eksperimentelle operasjoner uten samtykke eller bedøvelse på slavebundne kvinner. Litografi: R. O’BrienDe franske legene Camille Gilbert og Joseph-Alexandre Auzias-Turenne (bildet) infiserte i 1859 fire uvitende pasienter med syfilis i et forsøk på å utvikle en vaksine mot sykdommen. Foto: Étienne CarjatI 1886 på Hawaii infiserte legen Eduard Arning en dødsdømt mann med lepra i forsøk på å utvikle en vaksine. Foto: Rudolf DührkoopI 1932 ble 400 afro-amerikanske menn i Alabama uvitende infisert med syfilis av Tuskegee-instituttet i Alabama i samarbeid med det nasjonale Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Forsøkspersonene ble i hemmelighet observert og bevisst nektet behandling frem til 1972, da en avisartikkel avslørte eksperimentet. En stor mengde eksperimenter ble gjennomført på konsentrasjonsleirfanger under nazi-regimet i Tyskland. Transplantasjoner, eksponering for gass eller giftstoffer, malariatester, nedkjølingsstudier, sterilisering, brannbomber og elektrosjokkterapi mot homofili var bare noen av eksperimentene som ble forsøkt på uvillige fanger. Rettsakene mot legene som ledet disse eksperimentene (bildet over) ledet direkte til Nurembergkodeksen, som setter moderne retningslinjer for hvordan etiske eksperimenter på mennesker bør foregå. Foto: United States Holocaust MuseumI 1954 gjennomførte den russiske hæren Totskoye-øvelsen under kommandoen av marskalk Georgij Zjukov (bildet over). En atombombe større enn de to som sprengte over Hiroshima og Nagasaki til sammen ble detonert nord for Toskoye, nær grensen til Khazakstan. Det ble så sendt 45 000 soldater med beskyttelsesutstyr inn i området for å finne ut om man kunne føre effektiv strid i et nylig nedslagsfelt. Antall skader eller dødsfall forårsaket av denne øvelsen er ikke kjent. Foto: Mil.ru
Personvern
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The personal data that the City Museum in Bergen can collect, process and store is determined by the Personal Data Act . This applies to the entire company’s work, including the website.
Bymuseet.no is the website of the City Museum in Bergen and covers all our museums and departments. The website uses log files, which collect information such as IP addresses, browser type, referral page, ISP, time, etc. The data can not be linked to you as a person.
The website uses cookies, also called cookies. Read more about cookies.
The Purpose Personal Data Act stipulates that we must inform about how personal data we receive is used. We process personal data in accordance with Chapter II, Section 8 of the Personal Data Act.
The City Museum in Bergen collects personal information both in connection with public services and related to the museum’s research, documentation and archiving.
The Responsible for processing Director is, on behalf of the City Museum in Bergen, responsible for processing the company’s processing of personal data. Organization number: 988 212 024.
Collection and processing of personal information: On the website Bymuseet.no we collect personal information through registration for events, competitions or other contact with the City Museum in Bergen. The basis for this treatment is Article 6 (b) of the Privacy Ordinance. Where you have consented to it, the information is also used to provide you with information, offers and service in newsletters, e-mail, telephone and SMS. The basis for this treatment is the Privacy Ordinance Art 6 (a). You can at any time refuse to receive such information from us, or withdraw your consent.
The Collections, documentation and research: City Museum in Bergen also collects personal information in connection with our social mission. This may be personal information that accompanies objects, photographs, interviews, gifts, donations, etc. This data is collected only to the extent necessary for the sake of the social mission and the public interest. The data processing takes place in accordance with the Archives Act .
Job applicants In connection with employment, the City Museum in Bergen receives personal information from applicants. This information is processed in accordance with the Privacy Act.
Personal information on our website:
Search the site Keywords that users search for on the site are collected and stored in Google Analytics. The purpose of the storage is to be able to use data about what is being searched for, to adapt the content on the pages and make the search function better. The keywords cannot be linked to other information about the user who performed the search.
Order buttons and external links On some pages on the website, there are order buttons that lead to other websites, such as the purchase button in the event calendar. If the link leads to a website other than Bymuseet.no, the City Museum in Bergen is not responsible for the processing of personal data on the external site. It is then the external website’s privacy statement that applies.
Integrated elements from external sites Some pages on the site may use integrated content from external sites, such as Tripadvisor, Facebook, Twitter, Youtube and Instagram. These elements leave cookies in your browser, which the respective platforms use for statistics and marketing (see information about cookies above).
The City Museum in Bergen does not store information about your use of these elements, it is only collected and stored by the external actor.
Information security We secure your personal information by both physical and virtual access and access control, as well as by encrypting sensitive parts of submitted information. Our websites are secured with SSL certificate.
Bergen City Museum in social media You can also find the City Museum in Bergen in social media, such as Facebook and Instagram. Your activity and information from your profile is displayed on the page where you have written or posted photos, to all visitors to the page / profile. This information is the media’s (eg Facebook) property and is not stored at the City Museum in Bergen. We do not use your comments or your profile information other than that they appear in the comments field on the page. In these cases, it is the social media platform’s own privacy statement that applies.
Storage and disclosure of information Personal information registered on our websites is not available to other visitors to the website. The information will not be shared with third parties unless this is necessary to deliver the service that has been ordered and you have given consent.
The City Museum in Bergen does not sell your personal information to others.
Information registered in connection with events is stored in accordance with the law. They are not used for anything other than the event. The information will not be shared with third parties beyond this, unless you have given your consent to this when filling out the form.
If you are applying for a job at the City Museum in Bergen, we store your application and personal information as long as the recruitment process is ongoing. Then all your data will be deleted, unless otherwise agreed and active consent to this has been given in writing.
Personal information that is registered in connection with collections of documentation and research is stored on a separate server, in a lockable cabinet and in magazines.
Access, correction or deletion of personal data We process your personal data in accordance with the Personal Data Act and current regulations. Please note that you can demand access to and transfer of your own personal information, as well as demand correction or deletion of information.
It can be complained to the Data Inspectorate about processing in violation of the rules.
Contact information Inquiries about what information is registered, correction and deletion can be sent to post@bymuseet.no or the City Museum in Bergen, PO Box 4052 Sandviken, 5835 Bergen.
Privacy and cookies in the City Museum download document here.
Terms & Conditions
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The personal data that Bymuseet Bergen can collect, process and store is determined by the Personal Data Act. This applies to the entire company’s work, including the website.
Bymuseet.no is the website of Bymuseet I Bergen. It covers all our museums and departments. The website uses log files, which collect information such as IP addresses, browser type, referral page, ISP, time, etc. The data can not be linked to you as a person.
The website uses cookies, also called cookies. Read more about cookies.
The Purpose
Personal Data Act stipulates that we must inform about how personal data we receive is used. We process personal data in accordance with Chapter II, Section 8 of the Personal Data Act.
Bymuseet i Bergen collects personal information both in connection with public services and related to the museum’s research, documentation and archiving.
The Responsible for processing
Director is, on behalf of Bymuseet i Bergen, responsible for processing the company’s processing of personal data. Organization number: mva 988 212 024.
Collection and processing of personal information:
On the website Bymuseet.no we collect personal information through registration for events, competitions or other contact with Bymuseet i Bergen. The basis for this treatment is Article 6 (b) of the Privacy Ordinance. Where you have consented to it, the information is also used to provide you with information, offers and service in newsletters, e-mail, telephone and SMS. The basis for this treatment is the Privacy Ordinance Art 6 (a). You can at any time refuse to receive such information from us, or withdraw your consent.
The Collections, documentation and research:
Bymuseet i Bergen also collects personal information in connection with our social mission. This may be personal information that accompanies objects, photographs, interviews, gifts, donations, etc. This data is collected only to the extent necessary for the sake of the social mission and the public interest. The data processing takes place in accordance with the Archives Act .
Job applicants
In connection with employment, Bymuseet i Bergen receives personal information from applicants. This information is processed in accordance with the Privacy Act.
Personal information on our website:
Search the site
Keywords that users search for on the site are collected and stored in Google Analytics. The purpose of the storage is to be able to use data about what is being searched for, to adapt the content on the pages and make the search function better. The keywords cannot be linked to other information about the user who performed the search.
Order
buttons and external links. On some pages on the website, there are order buttons that lead to other websites, such as the purchase button in the event calendar. If the link leads to a website other than Bymuseet.no, Bymuseet I Bergen is not responsible for the processing of personal data on the external site. It is then the external website’s privacy statement that applies.
Integrated elements from external sites
Some pages on the site may use integrated content from external sites, such as Tripadvisor, Facebook, Twitter, Youtube and Instagram. These elements leave cookies in your browser, which the respective platforms use for statistics and marketing (see information about cookies above).
Bymuseet i Bergen does not store information about your use of these elements, it is only collected and stored by the external actor.
Information security
We secure your personal information by both physical and virtual access and access control, as well as by encrypting sensitive parts of submitted information. Our websites are secured with SSL certificate.
Bymuseet i Bergen in social media
You can also find Bymuseet i Bergen in social media, such as Facebook and Instagram. Your activity and information from your profile is displayed on the page where you have written or posted photos, to all visitors to the page / profile. This information is the media’s (eg Facebook) property and is not stored at Bymuseet i Bergen. We do not use your comments or your profile information other than that they appear in the comments field on the page. In these cases, it is the social media platform’s own privacy statement that applies.
Storage and disclosure of information
Personal information registered on our websites is not available to other visitors to the website. The information will not be shared with third parties unless this is necessary to deliver the service that has been ordered and you have given consent.
Bymuseet i Bergen does not sell your personal information to others.
Information registered in connection with events is stored in accordance with the law. They are not used for anything other than the event. The information will not be shared with third parties beyond this unless you have given your consent to this when filling out the form.
If you are applying for a job at Bymuseet i Bergen, we store your application and personal information as long as the recruitment process is ongoing. Then all your data will be deleted, unless otherwise agreed and active consent to this has been given in writing.
Personal information that is registered in connection with collections of documentation and research is stored on a separate server, in a lockable cabinet and in magazines.
Access, correction or deletion of personal data
We process your personal data in accordance with the Personal Data Act and current regulations. Please note that you can demand access to and transfer of your own personal information, as well as demand correction or deletion of information.
It can be complained to the Data Inspectorate about processing in violation of the rules.
Terms booking All our prices inclusive of 12 % V.A.T. We accept vouchers and have an invoicing system, 30 days term.
Accompanying certificate special needs – free for companion.
25 % discounts on groups more than 10 persons. Guide and driver free of charge. Not applicable to Bryggen Guiding, city walks, theatre walks, guided tours etc.
Prices applies in our ordinary opening hours. Requests all year around outside the official opening hours are welcome, additional fees may occur. Please contact us at booking@bymuseet.no
Cancellation policy:
Visits within regular opening hours: If cancelled later than 48 hours in advance customer pays 25 % of the entrance fee. Latest change of pax 24 hours in advance.
Visits outside regular opening hours: If cancelled with 14 day’s notice, free of charge, otherwise no refund of additional fees. If cancelled later than 48 hours customer pays 25 % of entrance fee.
Contact information
Inquiries about what information is registered, correction and deletion can be sent to post@bymuseet.no or Bymuseet i Bergen, PO Box 4052 Sandviken, NO 5835 Bergen.
